Last year's post on Yom Kippur is here, with links. Biblical etc. background is here and links. Additional Yom Kippur-related posts are here, here, and here.
Pardon the late posting. I thought I had posted yesterday, but there was a glitch.
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When Was the Psalter Compiled?In recent research, some scholars have proposed extremely late dates for the final formation of the Hebrew Psalter, even as late as the 1st century CE. By amassing evidence from the manuscript tradition, ancient translations, secondary reception and reuse, as well as book history, I argue that the basic framework of the traditional, five-book Psalter is rather the product of the late Persian period (5th–4th centuries BCE).
See also Scribes and the Psalter: Situating Ancient Psalm Collections in Their Scribal Contexts (Mohr Siebeck, forthcoming in 2026).
By Drew Longacre
Research Fellow
University of Münster
September 2025
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The review indicates that the volume also gives plenteous attention to the Book of Genesis and Mesopotamian and Ugaritic mythology.Carolina López-Ruiz, Greek mythology: from creation to first humans. World mythology in theory and everyday life. New York: Oxford University Press, 2025. Pp. 256. ISBN 9780190944803.
Review by
James J. Clauss, University of Washington. jjc@uw.edu... As such, the project under consideration achieves the goal of the series with considerable success. In fact, so much so that the title of the book somewhat undersells its content and might well have been called something like Creation Myths from the Ancient Mediterranean World (based on a phrase with which the “Conclusion” concludes, p. 216); for López-Ruiz rightly and expertly provides considerable space for parallel stories from the eastern Mediterranean and their far-reaching influence on Greek mythology. ...
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Highlighting an article entitled “Jewish Greek Translations” in the T&T Clark Handbook of Hellenistic Jewish Literature in Greek, ed. Marieke Dhont, set for release tomorrow, 2 October 2025.
Cross-file under New Book. I noted Ross's New Publications: Part 1 here.
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In a groundbreaking achievement that requires no actual breaking of ground, Israeli researchers have demonstrated the archaeological utility of a technology that acts like an “X-ray” for the Earth, revealing hidden spaces beneath an ancient site in Jerusalem, Tel Aviv University announced Monday.The open-access underlying article is published in the Journal of Applied Physics:Combining physics and archaeology, the scientists deployed a detection system based on muons — elementary particles akin to heavy electrons — to scan for underground hollows and cavities in the City of David site, just outside of Jerusalem’s Old City walls in the predominantly Palestinian neighborhood of Silwan.
[...]
First demonstration of underground muon imaging at an archaeological site in ancient JerusalemIf you think the abstract is technical, try reading the article! But part IV of the latter is pretty accessible.
Special Collection: Muography: Discoveries, Innovations, and Applications
Y. Benhammou; E. Etzion Corresponding Author; Y. Gadot; O. Lipschits; G. Mizrachi; Y. Shalev; Y. Silver; A. Weissbein; I. Zolkin
J. Appl. Phys. 138, 084504 (2025) [Volume 138, Issue 8 28 August 2025]
https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0273376We present a novel underground imaging system that utilizes cosmic-ray muons to explore the subsurface environment at the City of David archeological site in ancient Jerusalem. The method exploits the fact that muons lose energy as they travel through matter, with attenuation depending on the integrated density along their path. By tracking muon trajectories through a multi-layered, scintillator-based detector, we reconstruct angular flux distributions and infer variations in overburden density. This report details initial findings from measurements conducted at a large rock-hewn installation, commonly known as “Jeremiah’s cistern.” A high-resolution LiDAR scan of the interior was combined with muon flux simulations to map structural anomalies. The system successfully identifies variations in ground opacity, demonstrating the viability of muon tomography for archeological imaging in complex environments. This work represents a significant interdisciplinary effort to deepen our understanding of this historical site.
Again, non-intrusive and non-destructive technologies are the way of the future for archaeology.
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The Yom Kippur ritual included two goats. One was sacrificed to God. What happened to the second one, the so-called scapegoat?For some PaleoJudaica posts on or involving the Yom Kippur scapegoat, see here, here, here, here, here, here, here, and here.
For posts on the mysterious figure Azazel, see here and links.
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The presence of sling bullets on the Temple Mount suggests military activity on or near the Temple Mount during the Hellenistic period, possibly linked to the Seleucid fortress known as the Acra or later conflicts. The Acra was a thorn in the side of the Hamoneans even after the liberation and purification of the temple. It was only during the battles of Simon the Maccabee who finally managed to overtake the Acra in the year 141 BCE.PaleoJudaica has noted other recoveries of ancient sling stones here, here, here, here, here, here, and here.Adam Cohen is a student in the sixth grade at the “Tali Gilo” elementary school. He explains that when he first saw the sling bullet he thought it was just a regular stone, but because of its shear heaviness he handed it to his mother to help him inspect. He goes on to say that because of his find, his class is now more interested in archaeology and history. This of course is one of the important aspects of our sifting project, and fills us with tremendous hope and pride.
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This post leads to a YouTube recording of the conference papers. Despite the Spanish front matter, the papers are in English.
For more on the Greek Ezekiel Papyrus (Papyrus 967 or p967) see here and links. The main link in that post is down, but the others are still good.
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A REASSESSMENT OF ASHERAH (PAPERBACK)
With Further Considerations of the GoddessBy Steve A. Wiggins
Publisher: Gorgias Press LLC
Availability: In stock
SKU (ISBN): 978-1-4632-4983-0
Formats *
Paperback (In Print) ISBN 978-1-4632-4983-0
Publication Status: In Print
Series: Gorgias Ugaritic Studies 2
Publication Date: Jul 31,2025
Interior Color: Black
Trim Size: 6 x 9
Page Count: 391
Languages: English
ISBN: 978-1-4632-4983-0
Price: $69.00 (USD)
Your price: $41.40 (USD)OVERVIEW
Asherah is one of the most popular goddesses from the ancient world. She appears everywhere from the Bible to novels and comic books. The facts about Asherah, however, are often overlooked. In this edition of Wiggins’ 1993 study of the goddess, the author’s articles and book reviews concerning the goddess have been added to his original book. To date, this monograph contains the only full-length treatment of the Ugaritic material on Asherah in addition to a comprehensive examination of the textual sources from the Hebrew Bible, ancient Mesopotamia, Epigraphic South Arabian and Hittite sources, as well as the intriguing Hebrew inscriptions that perhaps mention the goddess. The original text of the monograph is supplemented by articles that update the ever-expanding bibliography on the goddess and that deal with iconographic representations and Asherah’s supposed associations with trees, snakes, and lions. Gorgias Press is pleased to bring back into print this study on a timely subject.
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Hanım Beğtaş from the southeastern province of Mardin, who had to end her formal education after primary school, has achieved a lifelong dream: Becoming a university student at the age of 52. ...Well done!Her efforts culminated in her admission to the Syriac Language and Literature Department at Mardin Artuklu University.
For more on the founding and development of the Syriac program at Mardin Artuklu University in Turkey, see the links collected here.
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The Sages of Yavneh
A Journey into the Origins of Tannaitic HalachaBy: David Sabato
Launch price
$43$30More details
Publisher: Magnes Press
Year: 2025
Catalog number : 45-131181
ISBN: 978-965-7854-58-7
Pages: 496
Language: Hebrew
Weight: 950 gr.
Cover: HardcoverSynopsis
The Sages of Yavneh traces the rebirth of Jewish law and thought in the aftermath of the Great Revolt and the destruction of the Temple. In Yavneh the early Sages laid the foundations for post-Temple Jewish life and created the conceptual framework that continues to shape halachic discourse to this day. Through close analysis of early Tannaitic traditions, the book uncovers the sages’ intellectual world, their diverse approaches, and the deep ideas underlying their disputes. At a decisive historical crossroad, the sages of Yavneh bridged second Temple traditions with the emerging Tannaitic corpus, offering a farsighted response to the crisis of their age and charting a path for the future of Jewish law, Halacha.
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Chi-Kin LeiFor more on the history of the Descensus ad Infernos tradition, see here, with a couple of comments on the arguable relationship of the 1 Peter passage to the Enochic literature.1 Peter and Christ's Descent to the Dead in Its Early Christian Reception
2025. 260 pages.
Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament 2. Reihe (WUNT II) 636€79.00
including VATsewn paper
available
978-3-16-164041-4Also Available As:
eBook PDF €79.00Summary
In the Christian Bible, there is a mysterious text in the First Epistle of Peter (1 Peter 3:19) which speaks about »Jesus preaching to the spirits in prison«. Traditionally, this text has served as the major scriptural support for the doctrine of Christ's descent into Hades (the so-called descensus) in Christian theology. Present scholarship, however, has rejected this traditional understanding and tends to detach 1 Peter 3:19 from the descensus. Such a critical judgment, unfortunately, remains insufficiently examined. Indeed, no previous study has specifically focused on how and why 1 Peter 3:19 came to be associated with the descensus in history, nor what bearing the descensus could have on the text of 1 Peter 3:19 itself. Thus, Chi-Kin Lei fills this lacuna by studying 1 Peter's early reception in relation to the descensus, ultimately challenging the current scholarly consensus on this issue.
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Judas le Galiléen : l’homme et sa place dans l’histoire du judaïsme ancien – Judas the Galilean: the Man and His Significance in the History of Ancient JudaismPages: 265 p.
Size: 156 x 234 mm
Illustrations: 1 tables b/w.
Language(s): French, English
Publication Year: 2025€ 87,00 EXCL. VAT
RETAIL PRICE
ISBN: 978-2-503-60839-6
Paperbackv AvailableForthcoming
E-journal
ForthcomingFollow the link for the Table of Contents.
Looks like I haven't noted this journal before. There's more on it at the About this journal link.
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Notice of a new online database that looks useful. Peter Gurry has additional commentary at the ETC Blog.
The site itself is here.
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Second Temple Period Jewish Ritual Baths at Nesher-Ramla QuarryThere is a downloadable free PDF of the volume. A print version is also for sale.A. Melamed
The Zinman Institute of Archaeology, Haifa 2025 A. Kowalewska – Editor
The book is in English, 294 pages, plates in full color, size: 21×28 cm, ISBN978-965-7547-09-0.
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Notice of a New Book: Brody, Lisa & Anne H. Chen (eds.). 2025. Dura-Europos: Past, Present, Future. Turnhout. Brepols.
For many PaleoJudaica posts on and involving the ancient city of Dura-Europos, especially its synagogue and its decorative art, start here and follow the links.
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There are essentially three goals of the project:Congratulations on the funding from the National Endowment of the Humanities.1. To develop AI techniques and tools that abstract citations from an enormous and complicated corpus of rabbinic texts that span from antiquity to the modern day. These techniques should also be useful to scholars who similarly want to mine very different corpora to build their own citation networks.
2. To use these extracted citations to construct a network, and then to develop a viewing tool that allows users to navigate (and filter!) this network.
3. To begin the scholarly analysis of this network for new scholarly insights. We are especially interested in using it to trace how knowledge moves through space and time.
Cross-file under Algorithm Watch.
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New Independent Bass MP George Razay has broken out into song during his maiden speech to the Tasmanian parliament today.Well it was in Syriac, which is a rather different (Edessan) dialect from Jesus's Galilean Aramaic. But still Aramaic.George Razay recited the Lord’s Prayer in Aramaic, the language spoken by Jesus Christ 2,000 years ago.
[...]
There is a video of his recitation.
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“The hidden matters belong to YHWH our God,” declares Deuteronomy 29:28, “but with overt matters, it is for us and our children ever to apply all the provisions of this Torah.” This verse stands in isolation, prompting mystical speculation about the nature of the “hidden” and “overt” matters… until we realize that the passage has been redacted, and that the verse has been detached from its original context, which explained its meaning clearly.Redaction criticism is always fun.
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I have noted this list before, in both its 2104 and 2017 versions. I don't know whether this BHD post has anything new in it or is just a recycle. But in any case, it's good to see the story getting some outside attention here, here, and here.
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Jerome’s Sources in His Translation of the Hebrew BibleYou can also buy the book in paperback or hardback.
Paul Rodrigue (author)At the close of the fourth century CE, Jerome of Stridon—renowned Latin scholar, theologian, and priest—undertook the monumental task of translating the Hebrew-Aramaic Bible into Latin. The result of this effort, now known as the Vulgate, has long been regarded as a foundational text of Western Christianity. In this volume, Paul Rodrigue investigates the sources that Jerome may have drawn upon in the process of translation.
Far from being just a rendering of the Hebrew-Aramaic Bible, the Vulgate emerges as a layered and multifaceted translation, shaped not only by the Hebrew-Aramaic text but also by a broad array of additional sources. Through a series of carefully chosen case studies, Rodrigue analyses a number of verses from the Joseph narrative in Genesis, as well as from Daniel and Esther. Each Vulgate passage is meticulously compared with its equivalents in the Hebrew-Aramaic Bible, the Septuagint, the Latin translations of the Septuagint, the Greek versions of Aquila, Symmachus, and Theodotion, and—where applicable—the Targumim and rabbinic writings.
This comparative approach reveals Jerome’s engagement with texts in four languages—Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, and Latin—and highlights his responses to both Jewish and Christian exegetical traditions. Importantly, the selected translations span Jerome’s career as a translator of the Hebrew-Aramaic Bible: Daniel at its outset (392–393), Genesis mid-career (late 390s), and Esther at its close (404–405). As such, Rodrigue’s analysis offers a chronologically nuanced study of Jerome’s evolving translation method (sensus de sensu), providing invaluable insight for scholars of biblical studies, late antiquity, translation theory, and the transmission of sacred texts.
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In a groundbreaking study led by archaeologist Kathleen Martinez, working in collaboration with RMS Titanic discoverer Bob Ballard and a team of underwater archaeologists, a vast submerged port was discovered offshore from Taposiris Magna at a depth of 12 metres.It seems like just about everything except Cleopatra's tomb has been found at Taposiris Magna. But perhaps that is coming.
Meanwhile, for notices of the many fascinating discoveries there, start here and follow the links. And for posts on or involving Cleopatra VII (the Cleopatra), who reportedly knew Hebrew and Aramaic, see there and links plus here and links.
HT Archaeologica News. Cross-file under Maritime (Marine, Underwater) Archaeology.
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The helmet was likely lost in the Battle of the Egadi Islands (also known as the Aegates Islands) in the First Punic War in 241 B.C.Another helmet was recovered from the same site, presumably lost in the same battle, in 2017. And for lots more on the archaeology of the Battle of the Aegates, start here and follow the links.In August 2024, a team of divers from the Society for the Documentation of Submerged Sites discovered the helmet, along with about 30 other metal artifacts, while investigating the area where the ancient battle occurred, according to a translated statement published Sept. 5 by the Sicilian Region, the regional government of Sicily.
Crosss file under Marine (Maritime, Underwater) Archaeology.
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I have already noted that this film was in the works. But there is now a creepy trailer. It gives the release date, perhaps overly precisely, as "Fall 2025 AD."
For more on the Infancy Gospel of Thomas, see the link above, plus here.
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Again, pray for peace in the coming year.
Last year's Rosh HaShanah post is here. A related post is here. For biblical background, see here.
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JTA — After studying the world’s oldest synagogue paintings for nearly a decade, Jill Joshowitz had accepted that she might never be able to stand before them as they remained locked away in Syria amid its civil war.That's good news!Jewish sites and synagogues suffered lootings and bombardment over the course of the war, which followed the emigration of virtually all Syrian Jews. Could the paintings have even survived?
“I spent almost a decade of my life researching and writing about these paintings, and because they were stored in Syria, I never thought that I would really have an opportunity in my lifetime, as a Jewish scholar and researcher, to see these paintings,” said Joshowitz, a historian of Jewish visual culture based in Pittsburgh.
[...]
For many posts on the Dura-Europos synagogue and its decorative art, see here and links.
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The precise origins of the practice of reading from the prophets in the synagogue are unknown, but early evidence can be seen in the story of Jesus visiting the synagogue in his hometown on Shabbat and reading from Isaiah (Luke 4:16–19). Yet the process of making prophetic scripture relevant to a contemporary audience began even earlier, as we see in the second-century B.C.E. book of Baruch.Perhaps Daniel chapter 9 is also relevant here.
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No surprise. Background here.
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Miniature Codices in Early ChristianityMichael J. Kruger
Oxford Early Christian Studies
£84.00
Hardback
Published: 08 July 2025
240 Pages | 9 Illustrations
234x156mm
ISBN: 9780198940395Also Available As:
E-bookDescription
While there has been renewed scholarly interest in paratextual features of early Christian manuscripts, that interest has rarely extended to the size of manuscripts, particularly the format known as the miniature codex. Such neglect is surprising given that this miniature format was a notable part of early Christian textual culture, emerging as early as the second century and visible well into the seventh century and beyond. So established was this format among Christians during this period, that C.H. Roberts once surmised (incorrectly) that, "The miniature codex would seem to be a Christian invention."
Many of these tiny books were elegant, well-crafted, and could contain a surprising number of pages. Currently, we have over 60 such codices, which contain a wide range of Christian literature including New Testament books, patristic and non-canonical writings (e.g., the Didache, Acts of Paul, and apocryphal gospels), and even liturgical-ritual texts. This volume is the first full-length monograph on the phenomenon of the miniature codex, offering a framework for distinguishing miniature codices from other tiny texts (e.g. amulets), exploring their practical and iconic functions, and, perhaps most importantly, assembling a detailed catalogue of all known Christian and Greek miniature codices. This distinctive book format provides an essential window into the textual, literary, and visual culture of early Christianity, shedding fresh light on how and why Christians were considered people of the book.
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Memory Formation in Isaiah 40–55Poetic Reimagination that Accomplishes Comfort
Series: Biblical Interpretation Series, Volume: 233
Author: Megan C. Roberts
While scholars recognize that comfort and memory are dominant, interconnected themes in Isaiah 40–55, the phenomenon of collective memory itself has not received specific attention to clarify why memory is connected to comfort. Sociological memory studies and trauma theory fill this methodological gap by explaining the nature of memory framework formation within Second Isaiah. Jacob/Israel and Zion, as poetic figures, exemplify the broken memory frameworks of exilic Judeans that do not lead to comfort. This analysis of Isa 40–55, then, reveals Yahweh’s poetic process by which he re-forms his people’s memory frameworks so that they can receive comfort.
Copyright Year: 2025
E-Book (PDF)
Availability: Published
ISBN: 978-90-04-73411-1
Publication: 11 Aug 2025
EUR €129.00Hardback
Availability: Published
ISBN: 978-90-04-70804-4
Publication: 21 Aug 2025
EUR €129.00
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The Book of Esther Between Judaism and Christianity presents the book of Esther within its own merits, context, and complexity. It shows its literary features and virtuosity; historical background and the extent of its historical plausibility; and its key theological position, as well as its various difficulties. Furthermore, it discusses the place of the book and its figures in the sister monotheistic religions and cultures of Judaism and Christianity. It demonstrates how and why different Jewish denominations have approached the book, and how its story and characters have been used throughout the centuries as models for their own reality and destiny. It is my hope that readers come away from the book not only with a better understanding of this unique biblical book and its reception history in Judaism and Christianity, but also with better understanding of Jewish-Christian relationship.This essay is a summary of Prof. Kalimi's recent monograph. I noted its publication here.
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Every year in September, when the heat of summer is beginning to die down, the city of Cartagena goes back to a time more than 200 years before the birth of Christ when in the space of a few years it was known first as Qart-Hadast and then as Carthago Nova, as it celebrates the annual fiestas of the Carthagineses y Romanos.Background on the festival is here and links.[...]
The Spanish city of Cartagena was an important player in the Second Punic War. It was founded by Hannibal Barca's brother-in-law, Hasdrubal the Fair. Hannibal commenced his march across the Alps from Cartagena.
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Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu has reopened a decadeslong dispute over the Siloam Inscription, a 2700-year-old limestone tablet displayed at the Istanbul Archaeology Museums.Not surprisingly, this article supports the official Turkish view that the inscription should remain in Turkey. But it gives a good description of it and surveys the debate over repatriating it to Israel. My favorite episode in this saga is when the Israeli government offered to trade elephants for the artifact.Speaking in Jerusalem on Monday, Netanyahu said he had asked then Turkish Prime Minister Mesut Yilmaz to return the artifact during a 1998 visit but was turned down.
His comments have once again brought attention to the tablet’s history and its significance to both Israel and Türkiye.
[...]
PaleoJudaica has been following the back and forth over the Siloam Inscription, and other discussions of it, for many years.
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A rare hoard of 22 copper coins dating back more than 1,600 years has been uncovered in a hidden underground complex in the Lower Galilee, offering a tangible link to the region’s Jewish history under Roman rule, the Israel Antiquities Authority announced on Thursday.I noted the discovery of this underground complex back in 2024.... Originally carved during the Great Revolt of 66–70 CE and expanded for the Bar-Kochba Revolt of 132–136 CE, the tunnels were expected to yield artifacts from those periods. Instead, the coins bore the images of Emperors Constantius II and Constans I, dating them to the 4th century CE, during the lesser-known Gallus Revolt of 351–352 CE—the last Jewish rebellion under Roman rule.
For more on the Gallus Revolt, see here and links.
For many PaleoJudaica posts on the archaeological discoveries at Huqoq (Hukok), including the synagogue and the mosaics, see here and links, plus here.
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Since the first issue of Biblical Archaeology Review was published 50 years ago, the landscape of biblical archaeology—both literal and figurative—has expanded in remarkable ways. From the ever-broadening conception of “biblical lands” to increasingly expansive ideas about who participates in the archaeological process, Erin Darby’s article “Forging Ahead: Biblical Archaeology’s Expanding Frontier,” which appears in the Fall 2025 issue of BAR, explores how such developments help to foster a dynamic and sustainable future for the field.This essay summarizes the BAR article. The latter is behind a subscription wall.[...]
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Marc Herman, After Revelation: The Rabbinic Past in the Medieval Islamic World (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2025).Cross-file under New Book.... Starting in the tenth century with the later geonim, Jews in the Islamic world began to ask “big” questions about rabbinic literature, its authority and its authenticity. Where did it come from? How did it work? And why should it matter? Both Qaraites (who rejected rabbinic authority) and Rabbanites (who championed it) pondered such problems. But the nature, scope, and function of Oral Torah did not stem only, or even primarily, from the Qaraite-Rabbanite debate; instead, constructions of the sages were central to Jewish self-understanding and even, one might say, to imaginings of “Judaism” itself. ...
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After international experts pressed Israel to give an extra day for the evacuation, Fadel and others remotely guided Palestinian volunteers and aid workers through an incredible feat. Racing against the clock, they moved away six lorryloads of artefacts – including fragile ceramics, mosaics and centuries-old skeletons – to a safer place across the bombed-out city.Thousands of archaeological relics rescued in Gaza ahead of IDF strike. Army says Hamas was using warehouse that contained artifacts from over 25 years of excavations, including some of the oldest known evidence of Christianity in Gaza (Melanie Lidman, Times of Israel).Some items had previously been damaged by nearby Israeli shelling and break-ins at the site, but Fadel had left boxes of artefacts carefully packed and inventoried on the shelves.
He estimates that 70% of the contents of the ground-floor storeroom were successfully removed. They included many rare finds.
But all items left behind were crushed when rockets destroyed the 13-storey al-Kawthar building on Sunday. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) said it was targeting “Hamas terrorist infrastructure.”
The warehouse contained artifacts from over 25 years of excavations, including items from a 4th-century Byzantine monastery designated as a World Heritage Site by the UN cultural organization UNESCO, and some of the oldest known evidence of Christianity in Gaza. The Israeli military said the building housed Hamas intelligence installations and planned to demolish it as part of their expanded military operation in Gaza City.I have posted on this story already here, but these articles give additional details and the BBC article includes some background.
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Ancient Interpretation of the ProphetsI noted the publication of the book here.The ancient interpreters were in many cases very careful readers who paid close attention to the details of the words. While these interpreters are commonly thought to be innovators who transformed the meaning of the biblical text, they were just as capable of providing remarkable insight into the text’s meaning.
See also How Did They Read the Prophets? Early Jewish and Christian Interpretations (Eerdmans, 2025).
By Michael B. Shepherd
Professor of Biblical Studies
Cedarville University
September 2025
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Stephanie Lynn Budin, Caroline J. Tully, A century of James Frazer's The Golden Bough: shaking the tree, breaking the bough. London: Routledge, 2024. Pp. 354. ISBN 9781032695631.Review by
Craig R. Davis, Smith College. cradavis@smith.edu... The Golden Bough popularized a set of tenacious hypotheses about ancient myth and ritual which the contributors to this volume hope to conjure back into the light of day for closer scrutiny, some of them hoping to expose and exorcize these persistent half-truths from academic discourse and their reflexive acceptance which has inspired a number of contemporary religious movements as well. ...
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Awakening Awareness of the Body
May conversations such as these prompt experiences of embodied connection, even across digital spaces, and help us to recover a bodily awareness so often buried beneath reams of paper. May we be mindful of the care and feeding not only of the prophet (and sometimes the deity), but also of the scholar, the student, the writer, and the reader. Have a snack. Stretch. Take a walk. May this bodily awareness shape the questions we bring to our research and renew us for that work.Previous posts on the series are here and links.
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Within the final phase of the civil war — Queen Tewosre’s conflict with Setnakhte — we would thus have to search for another individual labelled by the two sides of the conflict, Osarsēph, “Osiris is in his appearance!” and Tisithén, “The enemy from the cliff”. While this interpretation is clearly speculative at this point, it may vindicate historiographically extra-Biblical traditions about Moses: whereas the Biblical story does not allow to pinpoint a precise historical context for the exodus event, the tradition preserved by Manetho and Chairemon might provide precisely that nexus. If so, Setnakhte’s “cleansing” of Egypt of enemies from Canaan could indeed be regarded as evidence of an actual exodus – reflected in the Biblical exodus account – in Setnakhte’s 2nd year, 1198 BCE.This is quite an interesting argument. But I am skeptical. There are a lot of "could be"s in the essay. And using Manetho and Chairemon, as filtered through Josephus, to reconstruct an actual Exodus sounds speculative.
That said, I am not an Egyptologist. I don't have the training to evaluate the case properly. I look forward to hearing the reaction of Egyptologists to the formal publication. It is scheduled to come out next year.
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After years of excavation, Israel on Monday unveiled the fully exposed Pilgrimage Road in the City of David, a circa first-century route linking the Pool of Siloam to the foot of the Temple Mount. Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu attended the evening ceremony alongside US Secretary of State Marco Rubio and US Ambassador to Israel Mike Huckabee.For many PaleoJudaica posts on the Jerusalem Pilgrimage Road excavation and its discoveries, see here and follow the links.[...]
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The researchers tested their method on a dataset of twenty fragments, including pieces from several notable scrolls. These included 4Q393, containing a liturgical text known as the “communal confessions” from the Herodian period (1st century BCE–1st century CE); 4Q26, featuring sections of Leviticus from the Hellenistic–Roman period (4th century BCE–2nd century CE); and 4Q270, also called the Damascus Document, a key text of the Qumran sect from the Herodian period.The analysis tool is open source, which is good. The report is still under publication review, but it sounds promising.Kurar-Barakat and Dershowitz found that while the computer could tease out all sorts of data, it had trouble distinguishing between written letters and holes in the parchment, due to similarities between the black ink and the black stone background as seen through the tears.
They overcame this challenge by leveraging another observation: the contours of the ink in the multispectral images were distinct from both the surrounding ink regions and the holes.
Photos of the scrolls are very useful, not infrequently more useful than looking at the actual scroll (because infra-red photography brings out the ink more clearly on darkened leather). But directly viewing the scrolls is sometimes still important. Example discussed here.
Shadowed holes in the leather can sometimes look like ink, so if this new tool can distinguish the two reliably, that alone is progress.
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The Canopus Decree was originally issued in 238 B.C. by a synod of priests convened in the city of Canopus, east of Alexandria. The priests gathered to honor King Ptolemy III, his wife Queen Berenice, and their daughter.There are lots of Ptolemies and Berenices!According to Dr. Hisham Hussein, Head of the Central Administration for Lower Egypt, the inscriptions celebrate the king and queen as “the beneficent gods” and detail their contributions to the Egyptian state and religion. ...
This Ptolemy, Ptolemy III, is mentioned in the Book of Daniel as "the branch from her roots." He was the brother of Berenice Syra, also referred to in Daniel 11. His wife, mentioned in the Canopus Decree, was Berenice II, who is not in the Bible.
They also had a daughter named Berenice! She also appears in the Canopus Decree, but not in the Bible.
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Philo of Alexandria, On the Life of Abraham: Introduction, Translation, and CommentaryI noted the publication of the Brill hardback in 2020.
Ellen Birnbaum, John M. DillonISBN 9781628376920
Volume 6
Status Available
Publication Date June 2025
Paperback $95.00In this sixth volume of the Philo of Alexandria Commentary Series, originally published by Brill in hardcover, Ellen Birnbaum and John Dillon translate and comment on Philo's On the Life of Abraham. By interweaving literal, ethical, and allegorical interpretations, Philo presents the life and achievements of Abraham, founder of the Jewish nation, in the form of a Greco-Roman biography. Birnbaum, a scholar of Second Temple Judaism, and Dillon, a specialist in Platonic philosophy, explain how and why this treatise is important within the context of Philo's own work, early Jewish and Christian exegesis, and ancient philosophy. Their detailed analysis illuminates Philo's philosophical, exegetical, and literary genius for scholars and students of religion, philosophy, and antiquity.
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Job's Wisdom
When Ethics and Aesthetics CollideSERIES:
Analecta Biblica. Dissertationes, 243AUTHOR:
Cao G.A.PRICE: 40 euro
YEAR: 2025
ISBN: 9789042955561
PAGES: IV-352 p.SUMMARY:
Job’s final response to Yhwh, as poetically wrapped up in Job 42:1-6, represents the culmination of Job’s transformative journey in his understanding Yhwh and himself. The poem is read in light of its literary framework as an attempt to prove that Job’s final stance displays a sapiential attitude which can only be properly understood when one takes into account the collision between the two essential viewpoints supported by the book as a whole, that is, ethics and aesthetics. Throughout the entire drama of Job’s situation from the prologue right to the epilogue, the author of the book of Job does not present the protagonist as a penitent, but rather as a righteous sufferer. Job’s final stance reflects a sapiential attitude deriving from a direct experience of the righteous sufferer with the aesthetic dimension of the mysterious God.
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A ceramic bowl discovered off the coast of Egypt may contain the world's first reference to Christ.I'm not sure why this story has resurfaced, but this Mail article from a few days ago has generated some interest in the media (here, here, here, here, and MSN reprint here).The so-called 'Jesus Cup' was unearthed in 2008 by a team led by French marine archaeologist Franck Goddio during an excavation of Alexandria's ancient great harbor.
Remarkably well preserved, the bowl is missing only a handle and bears a Greek inscription: DIA CHRSTOU O GOISTAIS, translated as 'Through Christ the chanter.'
[...]
As indicated, the story is from 2008 and PaleoJudaica and others covered it then. Details at the link.
Briefly, it's an interesting artfact, but it is not at all clear what it is about. The word translated "Christ" is an odd spelling and could have other meanings. The word goistas, if that's what it is, is not a known Greek word as far as I can tell. It bears some resemblance to Greek goēs ("sorcerer" or "enchanter") or goētēs ("wailer"), but the resemblance is not very strong and the word could mean other things.
The Mail article gives a range of possible interpretations. See also my link above for more discussion.
Also, Roy D. Kotansky has published an article that critiques the "Christ the Magician" intepretation and offers another one. It is posted on his Academia.edu page:
The So-Called "Christ" Magician's Cup Roy D . KotanskyKotansky is an expert in such matters and he would have good judgment. Beyond that, it's always a good idea to go with Frank Moore Cross's epigraphic principle, "The more banal interpretation is to be preferred." (Should we call that Cross's Razor?)
2021, Early Christianity
https://doi.org/10.1628/EC-2021-0017Abstract
A ceramic cup recovered in 2006 during maritime explorations of Alexandria is thought to record a reference to Christ as a "sorcerer". Dated to ca. the 1st cent. BCE / 1st cent CE, a modestly restored version of the text more likely preserves a gnomic phrase, "By a creditor is the complainer!" Or, "By a usurer (comes) the grumbler!" -- a reading that has nothing to do with magic. Analogies with ancient "drinking songs" (skolia) are examined that often promote such sayings. Other examples, introduced in passing, include the famed Nestor's Cup inscription, which may also be proverbial, and a mimic composition finely etched on a painted glass beaker (also possibly from Alexandria) that preserves fragments of a scene, with text. Plausible lyric features of the gnomic cup are also examined.
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Culinary Technology in the Ancient Near EastNaturally, one of the first culinary technologies people figured out was how to brew beer.Examination of culinary technologies in the Ancient Near East, from the Neolithic to the Early Roman period, shows how food preparation was central to social, political, and religious life. Innovations ranging from bread and beer production to hearths, ovens, stoves, and milling systems highlight advanced knowledge of chemistry, thermodynamics, and materials science. Far from primitive, these practices reveal sophisticated engineering and cultural traditions that shaped modern cooking. Cooking emerges as both a scientific achievement and a source of joy, creativity, and communal identity.
See also Culinary Technology of the Ancient Near East: From the Neolithic to the Early Roman Period (Routledge, 2025).
By Jill L. Baker
Independent Researcher of Ancient Near Eastern Archaeology
September 2025
Cross-file under New Book.
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On Wednesday morning, Israeli authorities ordered EBAF — one of the oldest academic institutions in the region — to evacuate its archaeological storehouse located on the ground floor of a residential tower in Gaza City that was due to be targeted.The Israeli army did not confirm the warning when asked by AFP, but several sources say France, UNESCO and the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem played a key role in securing a brief reprieve that allowed most of the artifacts to be removed.
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Prophetic Mediation and Ritual Practice
For this AJR Forum, I have decided to focus on one question which kept resurfacing as I was reading, namely how the prophetic practices that Portier-Young analyzes in the book fit into religious practices in the Hebrew Bible more generally. This question is fundamental to our understanding of prophecy as a socio-religious phenomenon in the Hebrew Bible, and it is a good illustration of how The Prophetic Body invites its reader to re-think texts and concepts that otherwise seemed ‘settled’ and well-known. ...Previous posts on the series are here and links.
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How Did They Read the Prophets?
Early Jewish and Christian Interpretationsby Michael B. Shepherd
Imprint: Eerdmans
190 Pages, 5.50 x 8.50 in
PAPERBACK
9780802885418
Publication Date: July 31, 2025
$24.99
£18.99EBOOK
9781467469968
Publication Date: July 31, 2025
$24.99
£18.99DESCRIPTION
Learn how ancient readers interpreted the Bible’s prophetic literature—and why their views have enduring value
How Did They Read the Prophets? explores the world of ancient exegesis, focusing on how early Jewish and Christian readers understood the Hebrew Bible’s prophetic literature. In this illuminating study, Old Testament scholar Michael B. Shepherd takes modern readers on a guided tour through the earliest readings of key passages from Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the Book of the Twelve. He also surveys shifts in ancient conceptions of prophecy—shifts that reflect the dynamic and complex relationship between speaking, writing, and interpreting.
Shepherd’s well-researched study is distinctive in several respects. One is its focus on ancient readings of prophetic literature in particular, rather than biblical literature in general. Another distinguishing feature is its attention both to inner-biblical interpretation and to early post-biblical exegesis. Finally, the book stands out for its insights into the enduring value of ancient interpretation in the modern period. Rigorous yet accessible, How Did They Read the Prophets? is a remarkable resource for students and general readers interested in biblical studies and the history of interpretation.
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Open-access article: Barnea, Gad. 2025. Some Achaemenid Zoroastrian echoes in early Yahwistic sources. Iran. 1–10.
The early Yahwistic sources are mostly, but not entirely, 5th-century BCE materials from Elephantine.
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Leonard J. Greenspoon, a towering scholar of particular depth and breadth who made biblical scholarship accessible to Biblical Archaeology Review readers for nearly two decades, passed away on May 22, 2025, at the age of 79. For 20 years, he was a distinguished member of the Clemson University faculty. In 1996, he became the Philip M. and Ethel Klutznick Chair in Jewish Civilization at Creighton University, where he was also a professor of theology and classical and Near Eastern studies.Background here.[...]
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Leah Navarre from France made an exciting discovery while volunteering with the Temple Mount Sifting Project—a ceramic fragment bearing ancient reed impressions.Reed impressions span much of ancient history, but the suggested date for this sherd is "the late First Temple period (ca. 800–586 BCE)."[...]
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The 6th century St Catherine's Monastery, run by the Greek Orthodox Church, is also there - and seemingly its monks will stay on now that Egyptian authorities, under Greek pressure, have denied wanting to close it.This BBC report is getting a lot of attention in other media. It appears to be a geniune effort to present all sides of the debate. But I don't have any inside information on it myself, so it's hard to judge.However, there is still deep concern about how the long-isolated, desert location - a Unesco World Heritage site comprising the monastery, town and mountain - is being transformed. Luxury hotels, villas and shopping bazaars are under construction there. Ariel view of Mount Sinai pictured before transformation as a long-isolated desert location and pictured mid-transformation with hotels, villas etc under construction.
It is also home to a traditional Bedouin community, the Jebeleya tribe. Already the tribe, known as the Guardians of St Catherine, have had their homes and tourist eco-camps demolished with little or no compensation. They have even been forced to take bodies out of their graves in the local cemetery to make way for a new car park.
In any case, as I have said before, the situation should be watched closely.
Background here.
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Ahead of the Jewish High Holidays, the Israel Antiquities Authority launched a massive digital platform with nearly 4 million records, including artifacts, photos, 3D models, excavation reports, and archival documents—now accessible to researchers and the public globally.The site is here. You can access it in Hebrew or English.
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Prophetic Bodies in the Ancient Near East.
In mapping the embodied nature of human consciousness, Portier-Young fruitfully adopts insights from anthropology, psychology, and neuroscience, demonstrating the benefit of the empirical research on human body even for the study of ancient texts. In this short review, I would like to give some examples of how I have found her study relevant from the point of view of ancient Near Eastern sources. The scope of The Prophetic Body is purely biblical, but a similar embodied approach can be applied to any set of sources of prophetic activity.The main ANE examples are from the Mari prophecies.
Previous posts on the series are here and links.
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Mosaics, mikvehs and oil lamps found at grand estate shed new light on ancient Samaritans. Unprecedented 4th century site recently uncovered by archaeologists in central Israel offers insights into the life of the Israelite sect — and opens many new questions (Rossella Tercatin, Times of Israel).
A magnificent agricultural estate, active between the 4th and 7th centuries CE, has recently been uncovered in Kafr Qasim, central Israel, the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) announced on Tuesday.In Israel, a Festival of Fruit Adorns a Spectacular Ancient Samaritan Site. An estate from the early Christian era found in Kafr Qasem shows the rise and decline of the Samaritans in Byzantine times as luxury was replaced by the industrial production of olive oil (Ruth Schuster, Haaretz).The site offers striking evidence of its ties to the ancient Samaritan community. Yet, many mysteries surrounding its inhabitants and their lives remain, one of the archaeologists excavating the site told The Times of Israel.
[...]
That said, the site was just a 10-minute walk from a Roman road that would likely have been used to sell the estate's products. The place also falls within the archaeological span of Khirbet Kafr Hatta, birthplace of Menander, the Samaritan magician who succeeded the famed Simon Magus, who could levitate and converted to Christianity, according to early Christian sources. Hence he needed a successor.
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My current series of posts concerns what I call the first discovery of lost gospels and scriptures, which became a major force in both scholarship and religious life at the turn of the twentieth century – the start of that century, rather than the end.. Today, I look at a critical component of this sweeping cultural change, namely the vital role played by esoteric movements, and especially the Theosophical Society. To oversimplify, the ideas they presented in the late nineteenth century, and which then stood at the far distant margins of respectable thought, have today become pretty standard and orthodox, and you may well hold them yourself.Some related PaleoJudaica posts are here and links.[...]
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The possibilities for me in embodiment that Portier-Young invites us to bring Hebrew Bible prophecy back into a magical world—one that unravels objectification and begins to reconstitute land and community as enfleshed together.Previous posts on the series are here and links.
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The Theology of the Book of LeviticusSeries: Old Testament Theology
Author: Mark W. Scarlata, St. Mellitus College, London
Published: August 2025
Availability: Available
Format: Paperback
ISBN: 9781108970112
Looking for an inspection copy?£22.99 GBP
Paperback£75.00 GBP
HardbackDescription
Leviticus is often considered to be one of the most challenging books of the Bible because of its focus on blood sacrifice, infectious diseases, and complicated dietary restrictions. Moreover, scholarly approaches have focused primarily on divisions in the text without considering its overarching theological message. In this volume, Mark W. Scarlata analyses Leviticus' theology, establishing the connection between God's divine presence and Israel's life. Exploring the symbols and rituals of ancient Israel, he traces how Leviticus develops a theology of holiness in space and time, one that weaves together the homes of the Israelites with the home of God. Seen through this theological lens, Leviticus' text demonstrates how to live in the fullness of God's holy presence and in harmony with one another and the land. Its theological vision also offers insights into how we might live today in a re-sacralized world that cherishes human dignity and cares for creation.
- Provides an in-depth theological analysis of the text of Leviticus
- The book is organized into thematic chapters that break down specific aspects of Leviticus' theology
- The book offers connections with historic and modern understandings of the Bible to demonstrate how Leviticus has had a significant influence in both Judaism and Christianity
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Aramaic Incantation Bowls in Their Late Antique Jewish ContextsFor more on the ancient Babylonian Aramaic incantation bowls, see here and links, plus here.
Alexander W. Marcus, Jason S. Mokhtarian, editorsISBN 9781967013067
Volume BJS 376
Status Available
Publication Date August 2025Paperback $80.00
Hardback $100.00
eBook $80.00Outside of the Babylonian Talmud, the Aramaic incantation bowls inscribed with elaborate magical texts are the only major extant written corpus produced by Jews during the late Sasanian and early Islamic periods (ca. 500–700 CE). Contributors Siam Bhayro, Anne Burberry, Shira Eliassian, James Nathan Ford, Tal Ilan, Reuven Kiperwasser, Dan Levene, Alexander W. Marcus, Jason Sion Mokhtarian, Ortal-Paz Saar, Harriet Walker, and Daniel J. Waller approach the amulets through a variety of methodological approaches, including social history, gender studies, linguistics, and digital humanities. The volume includes an up-to-date survey, introductory essay, map of known excavation sites, and bibliographical resources for the vast and diffuse corpus of Aramaic incantation bowls that served a number of purposes, including warding off evil spirits and diseases, overturning curses from human adversaries, and achieving success in court cases, childbirth, or livelihood. The fascinating artifacts presented here transform our understanding of Jewish culture, interreligious interactions, and the varieties of Jewish identity and religion that existed during this formative era.
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Highlighting an article entitled “Flouted Conventions in Septuagint Translation” in the Robert Hanhart Festschrift, Das Erbe der Göttinger Septuaginta (Vandehoeck & Ruprecht 2025).
Cross-file under New Book.
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Trying to unravel the knotted webs of Cleopatra’s family drama is a Herculean task. The Ptolemaic Dynasty was not just about ruling the land of the Nile—it was about keeping their family tree nice and circular by marrying their siblings. Cleopatra VII, the queen we all know and whose mystique continues right on to today, came from a family so tangled that historians need flowcharts just to keep the players straight. Her siblings weren’t just family—they were also frenemies, co-rulers, and, occasionally, barely tolerated spouses. The fact is, no one is even quite sure how many siblings there actually were in Cleopatra’s generation. Here we’ll take a look at the ones we know (or think we know) about.Cleopatra here is Cleopatra VII, the Cleopatra.[...]
Nearly five years ago, when the question of Cleopatra's genetic background came up, I pulled together all the available, rather ambiguous, evidence here. The current article goes into her family background in even greater detail. That does not make things less complicated.
Gal Gadot's Cleopatra movie is still not out, but as of this summer she says it's still on.
For many other PaleoJudaica posts on Cleopatra VII, who reportedly spoke Hebrew and Aramaic, start here and follow the links.
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The team examined the composition of the ceramics to determine the origin of the vessels. Further analysis of the organic residues preserved within the vessels provided insight into their original contents and intended use. Their results point to a production origin in southern Phoenicia, specifically between present-day Beirut and the Carmel region. Organic residues were detected in eight of the 51 vessels, revealing traces of plant-based lipids, as well as pine and mastic resin, which are strong indicators of fragrant oil preparations.The press release links to the underlying open-access article published in the Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory:
Scents of Home: Phoenician Oil Bottles from MotyaCross-file under Aromatic Archaeology.Research Open access Published: 06 August 2025
Volume 32, article number 59, (2025)
Adriano Orsingher, Baptiste Solard, Irene Bertelli, Erika Ribechini, Lara Maritan, Kamal Badreshany & Silvia Amicone
Abstract
Olfactory cultures shape how societies perceive, value, and use scents in daily life, ritual, and social practice, embedding specific smells within collective identity. Mobility exposes these cultures to new environments, where scents may act as markers of heritage and belonging for migrants while also prompting diverse reactions—ranging from appreciation to disruption—within host or newly established communities. The Iron Age Mediterranean, marked by intense cultural encounters, offers key insights into how fragrances contributed to an increasingly interconnected world, with the Phoenicians playing a central role in disseminating Near Eastern aromatic practices westward. Despite the frequent association between the Phoenicians and scented substances, the contents of vessels traditionally assumed to have held unguents remain largely unknown. This study presents the first systematic, interdisciplinary analysis of the composition, technology, and contents of over fifty “Phoenician oil bottles” from the island of Motya, off the west coast of Sicily, Italy. This assemblage represents a significant sample of these plain-ware, slow-pouring juglets that circulated throughout and beyond the Mediterranean. The results suggest that aromatic unguents were likely produced and bottled in southern Phoenicia during the eighth–sixth centuries BCE and circulated to the western Mediterranean. While focused in scope, this evidence contributes to broader discussions of Phoenician involvement in the production, trade, and consumption of fragrant substances. The study also highlights the potential for such vessels to inform future research into the sensory, social, and cultural dimensions of mobility and interaction in the ancient Mediterranean.
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Gemara Words Academy offers over 400 essential Aramaic terms organized into key categories including terminology, common words, teachings, questions, answers, and proofs.This web resource appears to be available for free.
Cross-file under Talmud Watch.
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An Italian archaeologist said recently he has found the exact location of Plato’s grave in the Platonic Academy in Athens after deciphering the Herculaneum papyri.I'm pretty sure there's nothing new in this article, but I note it just in case. I think that Professor Ranocchia was just saying that the recently recovered biography of Plato by the first-century BCE philosopher Philodemus gives a somewhat more precise tradition of where Plato's grave was at the Academy. We already knew that.[...]
But the article heavily implies, without quite saying it, that Ranocchia has located the exact physical location of this grave in the ruins of the Academy. I doubt that. If so, I want photos and a geolocation. A fourth-century BCE Greek inscription saying "R.I.P. Plato" would be nice too, but I don't want to be greedy.
My discussion of the new Plato biography and its implications is here. Related posts are here and here.
Cross-file under Vesuvius Watch and Technology Watch.
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The American Academy for Jewish Research is pleased to announce the winner of its annual Salo Baron Prize for the best first book in Jewish studies published in the calendar year 2024. The prize honors:I noted the publication of the book here and here. And AJR did a seven-part review series on it. See here and links.Simcha Gross
Babylonian Jews and Sasanian Imperialism in Late Antiquity
(Cambridge University Press)
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A summer double issue.
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This very first museum was inside a temple precinct, scented with baked clay and incense, and was run by a woman with an incredible love for history. Around 530 BC, in the shadow of the great ziggurat of Ur, Babylonian princess and high priestess Ennigaldi-Nanna assembled a collection that included objects already ancient in her time. ...PaleoJudaica has posted on Ennigaldi-Nanna here, here, and here. It's good to have this new article, since the old link on her museum has evaporated.
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“Heliodorus son of Apollonios, Agoranomos” reads the first part of an inscription on a rare lead weight seized by the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA) during a raid on an antiquities shop in Jerusalem’s Old City. Dated by its inscription to the year 165 of the Seleucid era (148/7 BCE), the weight may be connected to a powerful family from the ancient city of Maresha in the Shephelah region. Unfortunately, since the weight originates from the antiquities market, there is no way to know exactly where it came from.I have already noted this discovery, but this essay includes some new informed speculation about the possible provenance of the object. Assuming, that is, that it is a genuine ancient artifact. The essay underlines the fact that it is looted and unprovenanced, but does not go on to ask the next question. It would be helpful if it became normal procedure to present the positive case that an unprovenanced artifact is genuine.[...]
For lots more on the site of Maresha, see here and links.
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Letters from the Biblical World: The Amarna Letters
I very much doubt that the Amarna letters refer to the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites.
For more on the Amarna letters see here and links and here.
Letters from the Biblical World: The Lachish Letters
For some PaleoJudaica posts on the Lachish letters, see here and links.
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In a striking departure from prevailing notions of kingship in both the ancient Near East and early Israel, Deuteronomy introduces the separation of powers among distinct branches of government and subjects all political actors—including the monarch—to the rule of Torah. In effect, Deuteronomy provides a blueprint for the modern concept of the rule of law. These principles rest on an even more revolutionary idea: the establishment of an independent judiciary.
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